Enhancing Resilience Among School-Going Teenage Mothers: A Social-Ecological Model
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51137/wrp.ijarbm.1057Keywords:
Educational Psychology, Resilience, Social Ecology, Self-Efficacy, School-Going Teenage MothersAbstract
Teenage mothers in school face significant psychosocial, academic, and contextual adversities that threaten their educational persistence and well-being. Grounded in the Social Ecology of Resilience, Ecological Systems Theory, and Self-Efficacy Theory, this qualitative study developed a resilience model tailored for school-going teenage mothers in South African schools. Data were gathered from 31 school-going teenage mothers (aged 15-19) through a visual “draw-and-write” method and narrative reflections, as well as from focus groups with nine teachers. Thematic analysis identified key resilience factors across three levels: individual (self-efficacy, problem-solving, optimism), family/social (parental and peer support), and school/community (inclusive school environment, educational and community support). Findings suggest that resilience emerges through multi-level interactions, highlighting the importance of integrated support systems. The proposed model provides a structured framework for teachers, families, and policymakers to collaborate in enhancing resilience, reducing dropout rates, and promoting positive developmental outcomes. Implications for educational psychology practice and policy implementation are discussed, emphasising multi-sectoral collaboration to create supportive environments for school-going teenage mothers in schools.
References
Akpor, O. A., & Thupayagale-Tshweneagae, G. (2019). Teenage pregnancy in Nigeria: Professional nurses’ and educators’ perspectives. F1000Research, 8, 31. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.16893.1
Amit, V., & Wulff, H. (Eds.). (2022). Youth cultures: A cross-cultural perspective (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003333487
Amod, Z., Halana, V., & Smith, N. (2019). School-going teenage mothers in an under-resourced community: Lived experiences and perceptions of support. Journal of Youth Studies, 22(9), 1255–1271. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2019.1584920
Asheer, S., Burkander, P., Deke, J., Worthington, J., & Zief, S. (2017). Raising the bar: Impacts and implementation of the New Heights program for expectant and parenting teens in Washington, DC (Mathematica Policy Research Report). Mathematica Policy Research.
Author. (2024). A model to enhance the resilience of school-going teenage mothers [Doctoral dissertation, institution name withheld for review]
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
Bhana, D., & Mcambi, J. S. (2013). When schoolgirls become mothers: Reflections from a selected group of teenage girls in Durban. Perspectives in Education, 31(1), 11–19.
Barton, K., Redshaw, M., Quigley, M. A., & Carson, C. (2017). Unplanned pregnancy and subsequent psychological distress in partnered women: A cross-sectional study of the role of relationship quality and wider social support. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 17, Article 93. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-017-1393-5
Bermea, A. M., Toews, M. L., & Wood, L. G. (2018). “I’m not your typical statistic”: The resiliency of adolescent mothers in foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 93, 397–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.08.018
Bergland, C. (2014, March 12). STRESS [Blog post]. Psychology Today. (URL not provided in thesis)
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1981). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In International Encyclopedia of Education (Vol. 3, 2nd ed., pp. 1643–1647). Elsevier.
Chouvarda, I., Maramis, C., Livitckaia, K., Trajkovik, V., Burmaoglu, S., Belani, H., … Lewandowski, R. (2019). Connected health services: Framework for an impact assessment. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 21(9), e14005. https://doi.org/10.2196/14005
Chung, H. W., Kim, E. M., & Lee, J. E. (2018). Comprehensive understanding of risk and protective factors related to adolescent pregnancy in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Journal of Adolescence, 69, 180–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.10.001
Dalkilic, M., & Vadeboncoeur, J. A. (2016). Re-framing inclusive education through the capability approach: An elaboration of the model of relational inclusion. Global Education Review, 3(3), 41–59.
Dlamini, N. (2016). Teenage mothers’ experiences of motherhood–schooling, stigma and learned responsibility: A case study of teenage mothers of school-going age in a peri-urban area in KwaZulu-Natal [Unpublished master’s thesis]. Stellenbosch University.
Department of Education (DoE). (2011). Policy on the prevention and management of learner pregnancy in schools. Pretoria: Department of Basic Education. (Document referenced as DoE, 2011 in text; formal policy was later published in 2018.)
Diabelková, J., Rimárová, K., Dorko, E., Urdzík, P., Houžvičková, A., & Argalášová, Ľ. (2023). Adolescent pregnancy outcomes and risk factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(5), Article 4113. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20054113
Fute, A. Z., & Wan, X. (2021). Alternative education paths for pregnant girls and young mothers in Tanzania. Sexuality, Gender & Policy, 4(1), 8–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/sgp2.12018
Goossens, L., Vanhalst, J., Frost, P., & Luyckx, K. (2015). The link between adolescent loneliness and psychosocial functioning in young adulthood: A multi-informant study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(2), 555–566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0158-z
Goodman, S. H., Simon, H. F., Shamblaw, A. L., & Kim, C. Y. (2020). Parenting as a mediator of associations between depression in mothers and children’s functioning: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 23(4), 427–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-020-00326-1
Gyan, C. (2013). The effects of teenage pregnancy on the educational attainment of girls at Chorkor, a suburb of Accra. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 4(3), 53–60. https://doi.org/10.5901/jesr.2013.v4n3p53
Hans, S. L., & White, B. A. (2019). Teenage childbearing, reproductive justice, and infant mental health. Infant Mental Health Journal, 40(5), 690–709. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21803
Herzog, L., Tanguay, L., Beisner, B. E., Pahl-Wostl, C., Audet, R., & Schlüter, M. (2022). Studying human–nature relations in aquatic social-ecological systems using the social-ecological action situations framework: How to move from empirical data to conceptual models. Ecology and Society, 27(3), Article 13. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-13272-270313
Human Rights Watch. (2024, February 14). “Girls shouldn’t give up on their studies”: Pregnant girls’ and adolescent mothers’ struggles to stay in school in Mozambique. Human Rights Watch Report. (Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org/…/girls-shouldnt-give-their-studies/ on Feb 14, 2024)
Kornhaber, A., & Woodward, K. L. (2019). Grandparents/grandchildren: The vital connection. Routledge.
Krugu, J. K., Mevissen, F., Münkel, M., & Ruiter, R. (2017). Beyond love: A qualitative analysis of factors associated with teenage pregnancy among young women with pregnancy experience in Bolgatanga, Ghana. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 19(3), 293–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2016.1216167
Leonard, P. H., Hokenstad, A. N., Khan, Z., Jensen, J. R., Stewart, E. A., & Coddington, C. C. (2015). Progesterone support for frozen embryo transfer: Intramuscular versus vaginal suppository – no difference in a cohort. The Journal of Reproductive Medicine, 60(3–4), 103–108.
Lucas, G., Olander, E. K., Ayers, S., & Salmon, D. (2019). No straight lines – Young women’s perceptions of their mental health and wellbeing during and after pregnancy: A systematic review and meta-ethnography. BMC Women’s Health, 19, Article 119. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-019-0830-5
López-Aymes, G., Acuña, S. R., & Ordaz Villegas, G. (2020). Resilience and creativity in teenagers with high intellectual abilities: A middle school enrichment experience in vulnerable contexts. Sustainability, 12(18), 7670. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12187670
Magwabeni, H. B. (2017). Experiences of teenage mothers on social support in Nzhelele community of Makhado Municipality (Master’s dissertation, University of Venda, South Africa).
Makofane, M. K. (2017). Unity at cross-roads: A Southern African missiological case study (Doctoral thesis, University of Pretoria, South Africa).
Malahlela, M. K. (2012). The effect of teenage pregnancy on the behaviour of learners at secondary schools in the Mankweng area (Doctoral dissertation, University of Limpopo, South Africa).
Malindi, M. J. (2018). Personal and socio-ecological resilience resources among school-going teenage mothers: An exploratory study. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 28(4), 340–343. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2018.1501883
Malindi, M. J., & Theron, L. C. (2010). The hidden resilience of street youth. South African Journal of Psychology, 40(3), 318–326. https://doi.org/10.1177/008124631004000307
Maluli, F., & Bali, T. (2014). Exploring experiences of pregnant and mothering secondary school students in Tanzania. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, 4(1), 80–88.
Maslowsky, J., Hendrick, C. E., & Stritzel, H. (2021). Mechanisms linking teenage mothers’ educational attainment with self-reported health at age 50. BMC Women’s Health, 21, Article 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-020-01150-y
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56(3), 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.227
Masten, A. S. (2014). Global perspectives on resilience in children and youth. Child Development, 85(1), 6–20.
Masten, A. S. (2018). Resilience science is surging. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 42(2), 113–117.
Maternal Mental Health Alliance. (2023). The maternal mental health experiences of young mums (Report). Retrieved from https://maternalmentalhealthalliance.org/…/the_maternal_mental_health_experiences_of_young_mums.pdf
Montazeri, S., Gharacheh, M., Mohammadi, N., Rad, J. A., & Ardabili, H. E. (2016). Determinants of early marriage from married girls’ perspectives in an Iranian setting: A qualitative study. Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2016, Article 8615929. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/8615929
Mothibe, T. M., & Maputle, M. S. (2012). Factors contributing to teenage pregnancy in the Capricorn district of the Limpopo Province. Curationis, 35(1), e1–e5. https://doi.org/10.4102/curationis.v35i1.19
Nel, N. M., Tlale, L. D. N., Engelbrecht, P., & Nel, M. (2016). Teachers’ perceptions of education support structures in the implementation of inclusive education in South Africa. Koers, 81(3), 1–14【74†】.
Nkwanyana, S. (2016). The experiences of teen mothers with regard to the disruptions to their schooling. Educational Research for Social Change, 5(1), 87–103.
Phoobane, J. (2022). The effects of teenage pregnancy on teenage mother (Doctoral dissertation, National University of Lesotho)
Pinquart, M. (2018). Parenting stress in caregivers of children with chronic physical condition – A meta‐analysis. Stress and Health, 34(2), 197–207. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2780
Pirog, M. A., Jung, H., & Lee, D. (2018). The changing face of teenage parenthood in the United States: Evidence from NLSY79 and NLSY97. Child & Youth Care Forum, 47, 317–342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-017-9430-y
Pop, B. (2014). Research facts about resilience. Journal of Depression and Anxiety, 3(4), e107. https://doi.org/10.4172/2167-1044.1000e107
Redmond, B. F. (2010). Self-efficacy theory: Do I think I can succeed in my work? (Work Attitudes and Motivation, Lecture Notes). Pennsylvania State University, World Campus.
Rutter, M. (2013). Annual research review: Resilience – Clinical implications. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(4), 474–487. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12056
Saidi, H. (2020). Assessment of the challenges facing adolescent mothers in Tandale Ward, Kinondoni District, Dar es Salaam (Master’s dissertation, Open University of Tanzania)
Shapiro, M. (2021). Boys will be boys? A study of the menstrual health literacy amongst adolescent boys and the human right to education in the township of Langa, South Africa (Unpublished master’s dissertation). Uppsala University.
South Africa. Department of Education. (2001). Education White Paper 6: Special needs education – Building an inclusive education and training system. Pretoria: Department of Education.
Swearer, S. M., & Hymel, S. (2015). Understanding the psychology of bullying: Moving toward a social-ecological diathesis–stress model. American Psychologist, 70(4), 344–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038929
Theron, L. C., & Malindi, M. J. (2010). Resilient street youth: A qualitative South African study. Journal of Youth Studies, 13(6), 717–736. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261003801796
Theron, L. C., Liebenberg, L., & Malindi, M. J. (2014). When schooling experiences are respectful of children’s rights: A pathway to resilience. School Psychology International, 35(3), 253–265. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142723713503254
Thobejane, T. D. (2015). Factors contributing to teenage pregnancy in South Africa: The case of Matjitjileng Village. Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology, 6(2), 273–277. https://doi.org/10.1080/09766634.2015.11885671
Truebridge, S. (2013). Resilience begins with beliefs: Building on student strengths for success in school. Teachers College Press.
Twum-Antwi, A., Jefferies, P., & Ungar, M. (2020). Promoting child and youth resilience by strengthening home and school environments: A literature review. International Journal of School & Educational Psychology, 8(1), 78–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683603.2019.1660284
UNICEF. (2022). Global multisectoral operational framework for mental health and psychosocial support of children, adolescents and caregivers across settings. New York: UNICEF. (Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/media/135011/file/Global-MHPSS-Framework-2022.pdf)
Ungar, M. (2005). A thicker description of resilience. International Journal of Narrative Therapy & Community Work, 2005(3/4), 89–96.
Ungar, M. (2011). The social ecology of resilience: Addressing contextual and cultural ambiguity of a nascent construct. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 81(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01067.x
Ungar, M. (2013). Resilience, trauma, context, and culture. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 14(3), 255–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838013487805
Ungar, M., Ghazinour, M., & Richter, J. (2013). Annual research review: What is resilience within the social ecology of human development? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(4), 348–366. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12025
Vaithianathan, R., Benavides-Prado, D., Dalton, E., Chouldechova, A., & Putnam-Hornstein, E. (2021). Using a machine learning tool to support high-stakes decisions in child protection. AI Magazine, 42(1), 53–60【74†】.
Van der Merwe, S. E., Biggs, R., & Preiser, R. (2018). A framework for conceptualizing and assessing the resilience of essential services produced by socio-technical systems. Ecology and Society, 23(2), Article 12. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-10118-230212
VicHealth. (2015). VicHealth Indicators Survey 2015. Victorian Health Promotion Foundation.
Wabule, A. (2020). The influence of social ecological systems on academic resilience of orphaned secondary school students in Vihiga County, Kenya [Unpublished master’s thesis]. University of Nairobi.
Wall-Wieler, E., Roos, L. L., & Nickel, N. C. (2016). Teenage pregnancy: The impact of a mother’s adolescent childbearing and older sister’s teenage pregnancy on a younger sister. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 16, Article 120. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-016-0911-2
World Bank. (2021). Adolescent fertility rate (births per 1,000 women ages 15–19) [Data set]. The World Bank. Retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.ADO.TFRT
Zief, S., Deke, J., Burkander, P., Langan, A., & Asheer, S. (2020). Impacts of a home visiting program enhanced with content on healthy birth spacing. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 24(2), 105–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-019-02843-5
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Ngwanakopi Deborah Mmamogobo, Gideon Petrus van Tonder, Rachel Rirhandzu Mayimele (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
